Launch of a CERES 1 rocket, develop by Galactic Energy, a private rocket maker, from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. (credit: Xinhua)

How China Is preparing to dominate the world

by Claude Lafleur
Monday, October 6, 2025

Are we already at war with China? Some say yes. That’s why US Space Force officials talk about preparing for battles in orbit. But perhaps China is playing a subtler game. Not dogfights among satellites, but something more insidious: a trade war fought with irresistible technology. Services so abundant and sophisticated they could make resistance futile.

Today, China sits firmly in second place in space activity: behind the United States, but leagues ahead of everyone else. And Beijing has no intention of staying second for long.

The Chinese are also preparing to compete with the US by deploying two megaconstallations of communications satellites that offer services similar to Starlink. Half a dozen companies are racing to build rockets to challenge the Falcon 9. New offerings from satellite-guided self-driving cars to internet speeds almost beyond belief, hint at a future that feels lifted from science fiction.

This isn’t just growth. It’s the construction of commercial firepower—capacity on a planetary scale—that could tilt the balance of global power.

Furthermore, China deploys a range of military satellites and conducts orbital operations that greatly concern the US military. The latter fears that the Chinese will supplant them in what they consider to be the “next theater of war.”[1]

China also reports steady progress in its preparations to send astronauts to the Moon around 2030, in addition to preparing to collect Martian soil samples that, if all goes well, will be returned to Earth in 2031.

China uses these lunar and solar system exploration projects to promote its policies of international cooperation. It is offering anyone interested the opportunity to contribute to its lunar and planetary probes, in addition to participating in the analysis of the results and samples they bring back. It is thus offering us the chance to take part in some tantalizing adventures.

For instance, China is making unparalleled efforts elsewhere in the world to develop a host of innovative technologies and services. It will therefore be no coincidence if one day China achieves world domination.

Made in China: surprising technological advances

In January, the Chinese firm DeepSeek surprised the world by unveiling a super-efficient artificial intelligence service that could potentially supplant American giants.[2] According to some analysts, DeepSeek’s emergence is revolutionizing the field of AI. It’s worth noting that AI is playing an increasingly important role in space applications.[3]

The impact DeepSeek’s arrival had on the international scene has delighted the Chinese press. China Daily, for instance, took pride in reporting that, “After DeepSeek’s groundbreaking debut, some commentators likened its significance to a ‘Sputnik Moment’, highlighting its epochal impact.”[4]

The newspaper points out that the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957 marked a turning point in the arms and space race between USSR and US—what historians call the Sputnik moment. “The 83.6-kilogram satellite orbiting Earth delivered a psychological blow to and put strategic pressure on the US, because it meant the US lagged behind the Soviet Union in critical space technology,” notes the newspaper. It concluded, “China has risen from being a ‘follower’ to a ‘parallel runner’ or even a leader in certain AI domains,” adding that “DeepSeek’s rise “collapsed the US narrative of computational supremacy” and “shattered Western illusions of containing China.”

This is one of the recent examples of technologies being developed in China. We could also mention high-quality electric cars that are cheaper than their Western counterparts. Another Chinese company, Blue Sky, is developing a flying taxi, the EH216-S, a small unmanned helicopter designed to transport passengers over short distances.

“On a hot summer morning in Hefei, a futuristic flying taxi hums to life inside Luogang Park, a green space resurrected from an old airport in the city,” China Daily reports.[5] The EH216-S is a two-seater electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) vehicle that travels at an altitude of 50 meters. “This aircraft is fully autonomous,” said Zhang Yuhui, operations director at Hefei Heyi Aviation Co, which has developed the EH216-S. “It is designed for short-haul city transport, sightseeing, logistics even emergency response. Soon, passengers will be able to book rides above the city’s skyline,” he added.

China is also using small weather stations installed by drone in hard-to-reach areas. “Many geological disasters occur in areas with poor transport and communication, making it hard to monitor rainfall in real time,” said Wang Tun, head of the Institute of Care-Life. These mini weather stations transmit their monitoring data via satellite to the warning center from the most remote regions.[6]

For its part, the Geely Holding Group has just added 22 new satellites to its GeelySat fleet, which are used to relay information between devices of all kinds—the so-called Internet of Things (IoT).[7] This a new application where a variety of devices are networked together. These can be data collection stations or our cars, whose condition and driving behavior are monitored by the manufacturer or our insurer. Increasingly, even our household appliances are connected by IoT.

Geely already operates a network that enables direct satellite connectivity for autonomous driving, smart internet, cellular telephony, and other consumer electronics applications. The market for direct satellite-based cellular connectivity is increasingly promising, we are told.[8] With the exception of the poles, almost every location on Earth, including oceans, deserts, and remote mountainous regions where traditional communications are difficult to establish, will benefit from a stable network connection thanks to cellular networks directly linked by satellites.

Moreover, China has just issued a policy to speed up the development of its satellite communication industry. This policy will support the construction and commercial trials of low Earth orbit satellite internet systems, promote satellite direct-to-device services (D2D), and encourage satellite IoT applications to serve remote areas such as at sea and in mountainous areas. It will also step up efforts in core technologies, such as integrating satellite communication with 5G, 6G and artificial intelligence.[9]

These are just a few recent examples of technologies currently being deployed in China. In addition, there is a wide range of space-based services, such as powerful communications, remote sensing, and satellite navigation.

Satellites in service of crisis

When disaster strikes, satellites are often the first responders. On January 7, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck Tibet. Up to 400 people are believed to have died and 338 others were injured. This earthquake was the largest to hit China since the one in May 2021 and the deadliest since the one in December 2023.[10]

In the first hours following the earthquake, the Chinese government deployed a series of measures to assist the victims. Eight satellites, including Gaofen satellites and a terrestrial ecosystem monitoring satellite, were deployed to observe the disaster areas. Other higher-resolution satellites were later used to quickly identify devastated areas and damaged infrastructure.[11]

Most recently, the government deployed satellite telephone services in Hebei Province, which was severely hit by floods. Villages previously cut off from the rest of the world have been restored after emergency repairs and the establishment of satellite links.[12]

It should be noted that China is one of the countries most affected by earthquakes and floods, given its extremely rugged terrain. It therefore deploys a host of satellites for Earth observation, natural disaster monitoring, communications, and other purposes.

China is a land of extremes—mountains, rivers, earthquakes, floods—and so it is also a laboratory for satellite-based disaster relief. China just launched a satellite that it hopes will be able to predict earthquakes. This Zhangheng 1B spacecraft will attempt to monitor electromagnetic anomalies caused by certain geological activities, as well as storms and lightning in the atmosphere. China hopes to prevent large-scale natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic activity, and devastating storms.[13]

Furthermore, China has orbited two other specialized Siwei Gaojing satellites, which are used to monitor maritime traffic and enforce international rules governing the seas, as well as to quickly obtain high-resolution images of areas affected by floods, fires, or earthquakes. This network will eventually include 28 satellites, and which could even grow to 56 if international demand is there, it was announced. The satellites will be targeted at the global market and compete with international leading commercial remote sensing satellites operated by providers such as Maxar (now Vantor) and Europe’s Airbus, according to China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp, the constellation’s developer.[14]

An aerial view of the Hainan International Commercial Launch Center in Wenchang. (credit: Xinhua/Guo Cheng)

The explosion of the “private” sector

On November 30, 2024, China inaugurated a new spaceport, located on the Pacific coast, in Hainan, in southeast China.[15] Beijing claimed that this is the first commercial spaceport, unlike the launch bases of other countries, whose primary function is to handle government launches and, secondarily, commercial ones. By virtue of its geographical location, this spaceport is comparable to Cape Canaveral, Florida.

China refers to this spaceport as the Hainan International Commercial Launch Center, “the first spaceport dedicated to commercial operations.” It is also specified that it is a joint venture between the local government of Hainan and three state-owned conglomerates. Launches from this port will generally be paid for by companies rather than the government, it is stated.[16]

This culminates ten years of a space commercialization policy introduced by the Chinese government in 2014. The State Council thus encourages private capital to participate in the construction of space infrastructure. Ten years later, the government announced that 546 space companies were operating in China.[17]

But it is not easy to distinguish state-owned enterprises from those deemed private or commercial. The government, for its part, defines commercial space companies as those not funded by the central government and not part of national or military research and development plans.[18]

Initially, Beijing only authorized private companies to design small rockets and launch small satellites. But since 2020, it has authorized large-scale projects, including the design of powerful reusable rockets and the creation of satellite constellations, particularly for Earth observation, and including a megaconstellation of 13,000 Guowang satellites designed specifically to compete with Starlink network. Similarly, a second company, Spacesail, is building a network of 14,000 satellites called Qianfan (Thousand Sails) to provide secure and reliable internet services to users around the world.[19]

The Chinese government has thus implemented a series of measures aimed at encouraging the emergence and growth of a vast commercial space industry in order to stimulate innovation and close the gap with the United States. It even emphasizes the commercial space sector as a key driver of high-tech development.[20] In the eyes of the authorities, space is one of the country’s economic pillars, alongside electronics, IT, transportation, and communications—these sectors perfectly stimulating and complementing each other.[21]

Various Chinese companies are developing satellite services, particularly in the areas of communications, navigation, and remote sensing.[22] For example, users from around the world who connect to the Chang Guang firm’s website can view satellite images captured by the company’s fleet of 117 Jilin satellites. These satellites are able to observe any point on the globe around 40 times a day.[23]

This Jilin constellation can cover the entire world six times a year and all of China 24 times a year, providing frequent satellite image updates from any point on the globe, contributing to the company’s overseas business development. It already serves more than 130 international clients, providing services in surveying, urban infrastructure studies, agriculture, forestry, and more. It also monitors forest fires and floods around the world.

This is how the government funds and encourages the creation of a vast network of diverse companies, while several Chinese cities and provinces have established their own space sectors, funding a variety of facilities, research centers, and state-owned and private enterprises. Chinese are talking about “electronic cities”, or E-Towns, which are economic development zones which concentrate on certain technologies.

Thus, the Beijing metropolitan area has created a group of eight research laboratories which focus on areas ranging from the design of reusable space transportation system to satellite internet applications and satellite interconnection and control.[24] These E-Towns serve to “build an integrated industrial chain of high-tech research and manufacturing enterprises.” Beijing’s E-Town already brings together more than 160 aerospace companies that complement each other.[25]

These different space cities and regions compete with each other while cooperating, supporting, and stimulating one another.[26] For its part, Guangdong has unveiled a sweeping plan to position itself as a leading hub for China’s commercial space industry, in seven domains, spanning from satellite constellations and ground station networks to key technologies and ecosystem building.[27] Nowhere else in the world is anything like this found.

Furthermore, the government is seeking to develop a space (and other) industry independent of Western technologies. “Technological self-sufficiency, from semiconductors to artificial intelligence, has taken on greater urgency as Beijing aims to build ‘fortress China’, to steel itself in its growing rivalry with the U.S.,” the The Wall Street Journal reported recently.[28]

An impressive strike force?

In the introduction to a White Paper published in January 2022, Chinese President Xi Jinping declared, “To explore the vast cosmos, develop the space industry and build China into a space power is our eternal dream.”[28]

This policy statement also stated that: “The space industry is a critical element of the overall national strategy.” Thus, over the next five years, it stated that China “will start a new journey towards a space power. The space industry will contribute more to China’s growth as a whole.”

Since launching its first satellite in 1970, China launched only 131 spacecraft in 40 years (from 1970 to 2010), an average of only three per year. But since 2021, it has been launching more than a hundred per year. “As a result, China has approximately 1,000 satellites in orbit as of now, marking a dramatic increase from around 40 satellites in 2010,” according to Chief Master Sergeant Ron Lerch, deputy chief of Space Operations for Intelligence with the US Space Force.[30] (See the list of Chinese spacecraft launched so far this year here.)

Table 1: Number of Chinese spacecraft launched, 2010-2025.

These satellites perform various functions, such as communications, earth observation for civilian purposes (remote sensing), meteorology, etc., as well as various military services: reconnaissance, electronic espionage, secure communications, navigation, etc.

Moreover, China has been conducting its own human spaceflight missions since 2003, while Chinese astronauts have been permanently occupying space since June 2021 aboard the Tiangong space station. They are also exploring the Moon using automated Chang’e probes. They are the only country to have brought back samples from the lunar farside. And now, with the Tianwen probes, they are exploring the planet Mars (Tianwen 1), an asteroid and a comet (Tianwen 2), while Tianwen 3 is preparing to bring samples from Mars back to Earth in 2031. In addition, China is preparing to send humans to the Moon in the coming years.

All these missions were carried out using Chang Zheng (Long March) rockets developed by the Chinese Academy of Science. However, since 2019, private companies have been launching their own rockets.[32] Thus, five private launchers are now in service: Hyperbola (a.k.a. SQX), Smart Dragon (Jalong), Ceres (Guhsenxing), Kinetic (Lijian), and Zhuque.

Furthermore, commercial companies such as Landspace, Space Pioneer, Orienspace, and iSpace are busy designing reusable rockets with ambitions to compete with SpaceX.[32] And Galactic Energy is preparing for the first launch of its Pallas-1 launcher and aims to test a much more powerful Pallas-2 as early as 2026.[33] Finally, Deep Blue Aerospace is developing a small suborbital launcher that would be used for short suborbital flights, similar to Blue Origin’s New Shepard.[34]

As Andrew Jones, who has been following the Chinese space program for SpaceNews since 2017, reported: “China’s launch sector is already one of the most competitive in the world… This surge shows strong government support and the looming demand from megaconstellations like Guowang and Qianfan. Whoever achieves reliable reusability first—state-owned or private—will give China a decisive boost in launch cadence, cost and perhaps even global space competitiveness.”[35]

Moreover, several other new Chinese companies have recently entered the commercial launch market, some with projects as ambitious as innovative.[36]

The Mengzhou crew capsule and the Lanyue lunar module. (Credit: China Daily)

First back to the Moon?

In May 2023, China announced that it will send astronauts to the Moon by 2030.[37] Consequently, it is currently designing a new rocket called Chang Zheng 10, as well as the Mengzhou capsule and the Lanyue lunar module. The rocket’s first flight is expected in 2027, according to Rong Yi, a rocket expert with the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology.[38] It should be noted that this rocket has many of the same characteristics as NASA’s SLS lunar rocket.

Since then, China appears to be moving surprisingly quickly with its lunar program.[39] It has already tested the structure of its lunar rocket and simultaneously ignited the seven first-stage rocket engines twice, while continuing construction of the launch pads at the Wenchang spaceport.[40] It also conducted an emergency escape test of Mengzhou from a launch pad.[41] And now, a complete simulation of the lunar landing and liftoff of Lanyue has just been completed.[42]

These are fundamental advances in the development of lunar spacecraft. And the fact that China regularly reports progress also seems to indicate that this program is progressing well.[43] However, there are still many steps to be taken, including ensuring that both the Chang Zheng 10 rocket and the Mengzhou and Lanyue spacecraft will be able to safely transport crews.

But, according to the China Manned Space Agency, the “key components of the ambitious project, including the Long March 10 heavy-lift carrier rocket, the Mengzhou manned spacecraft, the Lanyue lunar lander, the Wangyu lunar suit and the Tansuo crew rover, are currently in the preliminary prototype development phase, and the design work is proceeding on schedule.” CMSA also reports that a fourth group of astronauts has been selected and is already training for lunar landing and exploration operations.[44]

However, several test flights will be required before these new spacecraft can be entrusted with human lives, as NASA had done in the 1960s.

International cooperation

In the early 2000s, China undertook two major programs: human spaceflight and lunar exploration using Chang’e robotic probes. More recently, it has embarked on solar system exploration using Tianwen probes. Not only do these programs enhance national prestige by showcasing Chinese expertise in cutting-edge technologies, but they also serve to forge international ties in science.[45]

According to President Xi, progress in space science and technology will benefit people around the world, and China wants to use space exploration achievements to create a better future for mankind. “Outer space is a domain shared by humanity, and space exploration is humanity’s common cause”, Xi said.[46]

In the early 2000s, China wanted to join the International Space Station program, a request that was rejected by the West: it had nothing to gain from a Chinese contribution, while China had everything to gain. As a result, 25 years later, China has its own orbital station, Tiangong, which it sometimes calls CSS (Chinese Space Station), to mirror ISS.

China is now inviting various countries to participate in this program by providing experiments to be conducted aboard CSS, or even to send astronauts there.[47] In February, Pakistan agreed to send its first astronaut there.[48]

The Chinese are the only ones to bring back lunar soil samples from the lunar farside. The soil analyses conducted by Chinese scientists have already allowed this country to claim some interesting discoveries.[49] And they are now entrusting a few grams of samples to research teams from six countries: France, Germany, Japan, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In addition, the head of the China National Space Administration, Shan Zhongde, said that lunar sample brought back by Chang’e probes “belong not only to China but also to the world, representing a shared treasure for all humanity.”[50]

Building on the successes achieved by its six Chang’e probes, China is actively preparing the next three, whose launches are scheduled by 2030. It should be noted that China has four of the six successful lunar landings, out of the 15 attempts, undertaken since 2013.[51] Thus, it is offering anyone interested the opportunity to participate in future missions; most recently, this country announced the addition of ten international experiments to its Chang’e 8 mission, scheduled to land at the Moon’s South Pole in 2029.[52]

The same is true for the Tianwen interplanetary missions. Building on the success achieved around Mars with Tianwen 1, this country has just launched a second probe which, if all goes well, will bring back samples from a small asteroid in 2027. It is also preparing to recover the first samples from Mars in 2031, using the Tianwen 3 probe. Once again, it is inviting international teams to join this large-scale operation.[53]

Finally, China plans to install a crewed base on the Moon, which it calls the International Lunar Research Station. As part of this project, it reports having signed cooperation agreements with 17 countries and international organizations.[54]

When the Chinese worry the US

Like all major space players, China uses an array of military satellites to monitor what is happening on Earth (photo reconnaissance, electronic eavesdropping, missile launch detection, etc.), as well as to ensure highly secure communications, to remotely control its planes, ships, and missiles with its GPS system called Beidou.

But now China is also conducting covert operations that are increasingly worrying the US military. For example, China is launching satellites that perform intriguing maneuvers in Earth orbit, some of which approach other satellites, particularly US ones, in order to inspect them—something the Americans are doing with their GSSAP surveillance satellites.[55]

The US military is also concerned that the Chinese are developing anti-satellite weapons: missiles fired from the ground to intercept satellites, killer satellites, or equipment capable of jamming satellite communications systems or engaging in electronic hacking.[56]

In recent months, the Chinese have launched five satellites that they say are used to test new technologies. Officially, these TJS (Chinese for “Experimental Technology Satellite”) are used to test equipment for communications, radio, television, and data transmission services, as well as to validate various related technologies.[57]

Table 2: Over the past decade, China has conducted two dozen mysterious operations in geostationary orbit.

However, the fact that 17 TJS have been launched in ten years, including five in recent months, leaves observers perplexed, since typically only one or two satellites are launched occasionally to test new technologies.[58] This is why the US suspects that the TJS are more likely to perform top-secret military functions such as electronic espionage, missile launch detection, or the development of potential inspection systems.[59]

This is why Chief Master Sergeant Lerch said recently: “There are a number of what the Chinese refer to as these experimental communication satellites that are out in GEO, and yet these GEO satellites, they’re sliding, or they’re moving very frequently across the GEO belt, which is a behavior that is very uncharacteristic of a satellite that’s intended to provide satellite communications.”[60]

On January 6, China launched the Shijian 25 satellite, whose primary mission, we are told, “is tasked with verifying orbital refueling and life-extension technologies.”[61]

This satellite joined Shijian 21, launched in October 2021, in geostationary orbit.[62] This satellite had previously carried out an unprecedented operation by docking with an old Beidou navigation satellite and towing it to a graveyard orbit located 300 kilometers beyond geostationary orbit. Such an operation shows that China is concerned about managing its old satellites. However, US military argues that these could just as easily be used to attack other satellites.[63]

In any case, on June 13, the two Shijians docked. Shijian 25 then reportedly refueled Shijian 21, although the Chinese have not confirmed this.[64] If this is the case, it would be a major advancement in refueling technology. But since the Chinese have said nothing about it, US suspect that this test “strengthens the Chinese military’s ability to operate in geostationary orbit.”[65] Curiously, the two Shijian spacecraft met again on June 30, their maneuvers having been closely followed by two American GSSAPs.[66]

Then, in July and August, China launched two more Shiyan satellites, numbers 28B 01 and 28B 02, which were placed in a type of orbit never before used by the Chinese, namely a trajectory inclined at 11 degrees.[67] According to official sources, these satellites are used to “measure and survey space environmental elements and test new technologies,” which means absolutely nothing.[68] So what are these Shijian satellites really used for? Perhaps that will be revealed in the future.

It should be noted that all TJS satellites and half a dozen Shijian satellites operate in geostationary orbit, in which a number of strategic satellites are installed: communication, weather, espionage, missile early warning, and more. There are more than 600 geostationary satellites forming a belt around the Equator.[69] However, the fact that the Chinese are increasingly carrying out operations of an unknown nature there is a cause for concern.[70]

Of particular concern is that they are developing techniques to inspect any satellite and, if necessary, electronically paralyze or even destroy it.[71] In recent years, Chinese satellites have reportedly been conducting maneuvers near foreign satellites, possibly to photograph them or analyze their electronic signals.[72] (Note that the US is doing the same.)[73]

According to Juliana Suess of the German Institute for International and Security Affairs, “China, at this point, is able to conduct very targeted proximity maneuvers, potentially even doing physical damage or listening to communications, etc. But they can now also do it, not quite unseen, but they’re very good at hiding what they’re doing until after the fact.”[74]

Last January, Frank Kendall, Secretary of the Air Force under the Biden Administration, stated just before leaving office that the United States risks being overtaken by China in the military space race. According to a report he commissioned, space will be the center of nearly all military operations, while by 2050, US adversaries—primarily China and Russia—will possess numerous weapons capable of attacking American space assets.[75]

Consequently, a report by the Council on Foreign Relations urges the Trump Administration and Congress to adopt a comprehensive strategy to maintain the United States’ lead in space. The report cites increasing threats, particularly those from anti-satellite weapons, as well as growing competition from China, and warns that the United States could face another “Sputnik moment.”[76]

For his part, General Chance Saltzman, chief of space operations for the US Space Force, believes that Chinese ambitions constitute a “powerful destabilizing force.” He is concerned about the growing number of space weapons developed by China, including anti-satellite missiles and laser and electronic warfare systems.[77]

Conclusion: The Chinese dilemma

Overall, China is developing a host of technologies that are becoming increasingly essential. Just think of Chinese electric cars, which would be in our best interest as consumers, but which also pose the risk of China taking over this critical sector.

Step back, and a picture emerges: China’s ascent is not confined to rockets or satellites. It encompasses electric cars, green energy, artificial intelligence, social networks, and beyond. One by one, Chinese products are becoming not only competitive, but irresistible.

But what can we do about what China is proposing? Of course, in the West, we could resist—cling to our technologies—although this risks becoming increasingly difficult. But what will the rest of the world do, particularly large countries such as India, Brazil, and South Africa? What if they abandoned our technologies in favor of those of the Chinese?

This means that, in the long run, Chinese high-tech products could become as indispensable as anything currently manufactured by Chinese factories.

But this poses serious dangers to our privacy as well as our individual and collective freedoms. By using Chinese electronic services—communication and computer networks, IoT, and more—aren’t we putting ourselves at risk of falling under the control of the Chinese government? Just think of our driving, which is already monitored by manufacturers; will we be comfortable with our comings and goings in Chinese vehicles being monitored by this government? What if it also monitored our communications, our internet browsing, our emails, our lifestyle, purchasing and consumption habits?

Is this the future that awaits us? Otherwise, what and how can we counter the irresistible allure of Chinese-developed technologies? Big questions, with no easy answers!

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39. China’s lunar exploration achieves systematic progress, says chief designer, Xinhua, April 2, 2025.
40. Andrew Jones, China invites bids for lunar satellite to support crewed moon landing missions, SpaceNews, February 14, 2025; Andrew Jones, China conducts structural tests for Long March 10 human spaceflight rocket, SpaceNews, July 18, 2025; Andrew Jones, China completes second hot-fire test for new moon rocket, including engine restarts, SpaceNews, September 12, 2025.
41. Jiang Chenglong, China conducts successful escape test for new manned spacecraft, China Daily, June 17, 2025; Andrew Jones, China conducts pad abort test for crew spacecraft, advancing moon landing plans, SpaceNews, June 17, 2025; Jiang Chenglong, Mengzhou escape trial lays groundwork for crewed lunar mission, China Daily, June 18, 2025; Zhao Lei, Rocket engine test paves way for manned lunar mission. China Daily, August 16, 2025.
42. Andrew Jones, China completes landing and takeoff test for crewed moon lander, SpaceNews, August 7, 2025.
43. Andrew Jones, China’s human spaceflight agency also provides updates on crewed lunar mission progress, SpaceNews, April 24, 2025.
44. Zhao Lei, Manned lunar exploration mission steadily progressing, China Daily, March 4, 2025.
45. Zhao Lei, China to highlight its lunar explorations, global cooperation on 10th Space Day, China Daily, April 17, 2025.
46. Xi Focus: China’s space exploration benefits the world, Xinhua, April 25, 2025.
47. Yan Dongjie, Space station providing unique environment for research firsts, China Daily, March 27, 2025.
48. Zhao Lei, Pakistani astronaut to become first foreign visitor to China’s space station, China Daily, February 28, 2025; Andrew Jones, China to train Pakistani astronaut for Tiangong space station mission, SpaceNews, February 28, 2025.
49. Moon’s bygone magnetic field still present 2 billion years ago, Xinhua, January 2, 2025; Chang’e 6 samples provide evidence suggesting global ‘magma ocean’ on early moon, Xinhua, February 28, 2025; Zhao Lei, Magma ocean hint revealed by Chang’e, China Daily, March 1, 2025; Li Menghan, Lunar basin formation period altered, China Daily, August 21, 2025; Zheng Caixiong, Scientists use moonquakes to map safe lunar landing sites in future, China Daily, September 16, 2025.
50. Zhao Lei, China opens lunar samples for research, China Daily, April 24, 2025.
51. Claude Lafleur, Recent Lunar Landings, BlueSky, June 5, 2025.
52. Zhao Lei, China picks 10 international projects to participate in lunar mission, China Daily, April 24, 2025.
53. Zhao Lei, Foreign proposals invited for Mars mission payload, China Daily, March 25, 2025.
54. Xi Focus: China’s space exploration benefits the world, Xinhua, April 25, 2025.
55. GSSAP stands for Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program (see Wikipedia); Andrew Jones, Chinese spacecraft prepare for orbital refueling test as US surveillance sats lurk nearby, SpaceNews, June 10, 2025.
56. Andrew Jones, China expands counterspace capabilities, new report finds, SpaceNews, April 3, 2025; Sandra Erwin, CSIS releases annual assessment of global trends in the weaponization of space, SpaceNews, April 17 2024.
57. Zhao Lei, China launches experimental satellite into space, China Daily, January 23 2025.
58. TJS 14: Zhao Lei, China launches experimental satellite into space, China Daily, January 23, 2025; Andrew Jones, China launches classified TJS-14 satellite towards geostationary belt, SpaceNews, January 23, 2025; TJS 15: China launches communication technology test satellite, Xinhua, March 10, 2025; Andrew Jones, China expands secretive satellite series with launch of TJS-15, SpaceNews, March 9, 2025; TJS 16: China launches new communication technology test satellite, Xinhua, March 30, 2025; Andrew Jones, China launches classified TJS-16 spacecraft, companion object emerges alongside earlier TJS-15 satellite, SpaceNews, March 29, 2025; TJS 17: China launches new communication technology test satellite, Xinhua, April 11, 2025; Andrew Jones, China launches TJS-17, expanding classified geostationary satellite series, SpaceNews, April 10, 2025; TJS 19: China launches new communication technology test satellite, Xinhua, May 13, 2025; Andrew Jones, China adds to classified TJS, Yaogan satellite series with two launches, SpaceNews, May 12, 2025.
59. Andrew Jones, China launches classified TJS-14 satellite towards geostationary belt, SpaceNews, January 23, 2025.
60. Andrew Jones, China’s expanding fleet in GEO tests satellite proximity maneuvers, refueling and surveillance tactics, Space News, March 12, 2025.
61. Zhao Lei, China launches first space mission in 2025, China Daily, January 6, 2025.
62. Andrew Jones, China launches Shijian-25 satellite to test on-orbit refueling and mission extension technologies, SpaceNews, January 6, 2025; Sandra Erwin, U.S. military space tracking systems strain under new threats, SpaceNews, February 11, 2025.
63. Andrew Jones, China’s Shijian-21 towed dead satellite to a high graveyard orbit, SpaceNews, January 27, 2022.
64. Andrew Jones, Chinese spacecraft begin rendezvous and proximity operations in geostationary orbit, SpaceNews, June 30, 2025.
65. Andrew Jones, China’s expanding fleet in GEO tests satellite proximity maneuvers, refueling and surveillance tactics, SpaceNews, March12, 2025.
66. Andrew Jones, Chinese spacecraft prepare for orbital refueling test as US surveillance sats lurk nearby, SpaceNews, June 10 2025.
67. Andrew Jones, China launches first classified Shiyan-28B experimental satellite, SpaceNews, July 3, 2025; Andrew Jones, Experimental Chinese satellite turns up in unexpected orbit, SpaceNews, July 11 2025; Andrew Jones, China launches test low-inclination satellite, new Guowang broadband group, SpaceNews, August 18, 2025.
68. Zhao Lei, Experimental satellite launched from Xichang center, China Daily, July 3, 2025; China successfully launches new test satellite, Xinhua, August 17, 2025.
69. List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit, Wikipedia.
70. Andrew Jones, China’s expanding fleet in GEO tests satellite proximity maneuvers, refueling and surveillance tactics, SpaceNews, March 12, 2025.
71. Andrew Jones, China expands counterspace capabilities, new report finds, SpaceNews, April 3, 2025.
72. Andrew Jones, China expands counterspace capabilities, new report finds, SpaceNews, April 3, 2025.
73. Sandra Erwin, Space Force eyes commercial satellites to boost surveillance in geostationary orbit, SpaceNews, March 11, 2025.
74. Andrew Jones, China’s expanding footprint in geostationary orbit raises security concerns, SpaceNews, March 12, 2025.
75. Sandra Erwin, Air Force chief’s parting warning: U.S. must transform Space Force to counter China, SpaceNews, January 13, 2025.
76. Sandra Erwin, Space security at crossroads: Report urges U.S.-China dialogue, SpaceNews, February 11, 2025.
77. Sandra Erwin, U.S. Space Force chief: China’s capabilities in orbit a ‘destabilizing force’, SpaceNews, April 3 2025.

The author wishes to thank Philippe Garneau for his valuable collaboration.

Claude Lafleur is a French-Canadian science reporter who has been covering space activities for forty years. He produces the podcast “Voyage dans l’espace“ and publishes statistics and summaries on BlueSky (@claude-lafleur.bsky.social). He can be reached at claude-lafleur1@videotron.ca.

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